The field of training and development has changed significantly during the past several years, reflecting both its role and importance in achieving higher employee performance and meeting organizational goals. Today, this field has become more important because employees need to learn new skills, advance their knowledge, and meet the challenges of technology in achieving high performance.

BACKGROUND

Training has traditionally been defined as the process by which individuals change their skills, knowledge, attitudes, and/or behavior (Robbins and DeCenzo, 1998). In this context, training involves designing and supporting learning activities that result in a desired level of performance. In contrast, development typically refers to long-term growth and learning, directing attention more on what an individual may need to know or do at some future time. While training focuses more on current job duties or responsibilities, development points to future job responsibilities. However, sometimes these terms have been used interchangeably or have been denoted by the single term performance consulting, which emphasizes either the product of training and development or how individuals perform as a result of what they have learned (Robinson and Robinson, 1995).

To be effective, training and development must meet a number of goals. First, they must be focused on individual training needs but still reflect organizational goals in terms of desired or expected performance. Second, training and development must reflect learning goals or outcomes, outlining what will be accomplished by this process. Third, they must be based on sound learning principles, be perceived as important by trainees, and be conducted in a manner that maximizes learning. Last, they must be evaluated to determine effectiveness and to help guide change and improvement.

TRENDS IN TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

A number of trends have occurred that reflect the common theme of making training more effective. Some of the most significant trends include the following:

• A greater emphasis on customized training reflects the needs of trainees, both in terms of the skills and knowledge they currently have and those that they need, along with identifying the unique learning style of each individual. By having this focus, training can better match each individual's learning goals and needs, and thus be perceived as more relevant and appropriate by the trainee.
• An increased development of personalized learning objectives relates to present or future job requirements and reflects past performance appraisal information. This information can be gained, in part, by conducting a needs assessment for each trainee and can help in designing learning activities that encompass the critical skills and content areas needed for future performance.
• A greater use of instructional technologies, such as distance learning, allows individuals to customize learning to their job situation—such as location, time, access to technology, and so forth. The use of current training technologies can greatly assist individuals in their learning, since training content and delivery can be standardized, quickly updated, and constructed so as to require learners to demonstrate the desired competencies as they engage in learning activities.
• A greater integration of training and development into the workplace links learning to job performance. Training outcomes and learning activities are linked to each individual's job requirements so that what trainees learn will be reflected in their job performance. For example, individuals who have participated in a training program on developing teamwork skills would be expected to demonstrate these skills in their future job performance.
• A greater use of action or performance plans requires trainees to develop a plan outlining how they will implement what they have learned and how they will determine whether this plan will, in fact, improve performance. The use of this process further links training to job performance; it can also be integrated with the performance appraisal process to measure changes or improvements in an individual's performance.

A MODEL FOR CREATING TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS

With training and development becoming more systematic, models describing the process and activities required to achieve successful training are being used more frequently to explain how training should be designed, delivered, and evaluated. One such model, as shown in Figure 1, outlines the steps that should be completed during the pre-training, training, and post-training stages. This model also presents a brief summary of each of these stages, explaining why each step should be performed carefully and accurately.

During the pre-training stage, information is gathered to help determine the need for training. An assessment is made regarding what improvements or changes an organization needs to make, along with an assessment of what trainees need to meet their performance expectations. From this information, a decision can be made regarding the training gap, for example, the difference between the performance that is desired and the performance that currently exists.

After this assessment is complete, a number of training activities can be completed, including developing training goals or outcomes, determining the appropriate learning activities and strategies, and achieving an understanding and commitment from the trainees for the program or activities. When these activities are performed effectively, the likelihood that the training will be successful is greatly enhanced.

During the final stage, post-training, a number of activities are required to follow up on the training, ensure that it is integrated into the workplace, and measure performance changes and the effectiveness of the training. Although training can be measured through several techniques, the most important and relevant measurement is one that focuses on changes in performance rather than other factors, such as trainees' satisfaction with the training or what they have learned.

IMPACT OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT ON PERFORMANCE AND ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS

One current method of evaluating the impact and importance of training is to examine the potential—or real—benefits to be achieved through training and development. Although not all benefits can be measured on a strict cost-benefit analysis basis, most benefits can be at least informally measured and used to determine effectiveness. The most significant direct benefits of training are the following:

• It clarifies job duties and responsibilities
• It increases an individual's job competence
• It provides the foundation for further development
• It assists in conducting an accurate performance appraisal
• It produces higher levels of performance

In addition, training may also be evaluated in terms of indirect benefits that can add additional value. These indirect benefits could include the following:

• Enhancing teamwork and team building
• Producing a strong sense of commitment to the organization
• Achieving higher levels of employee motivation
• Assisting in cross-training/job rotation

Although the impact of training can be measured in terms of individual learning and performance, another way to determine its impact is in relation to organizational growth, development, or effectiveness. As organizations have changed in recent times, there has emerged a need to study the critical elements that make organizations prosper and relate these to training and development. It is common today to view organizations in a dynamic sense, noting that they are constantly changing, renewing themselves, and in need of being reflective of current business practices. One current prospective is to view an organization as a "learning culture," reflecting its need to be constantly involved with learning how to become better and to provide significant training opportunities for employees (Senge, 1990). Accordingly, when organizations adopt this learning culture, they create a variety of training opportunities for all employees and develop performance expectations that instill in all employees the need for and value of training and development on a continual basis.

SUMMARY

Training and development have achieved a high degree of recognition for their importance in helping individuals become better performers and assisting organizations in achieving their goals. The field has become more visible, training processes more clearly defined, and the need for training more evident as societal and technological changes have occurred.

Through designing training and development activities as described in the model presented in Figure 1, the benefits outlined in this article—both direct and indirect—can be achieved. Further, when employees learn new skills and acquire new knowledge, they increase their career potential and add extra value to their employers and others whose work is impacted by their performance.

Following a well-structured plan for designing, implementing, and evaluating training and development programs is helpful in ensuring the effectiveness of the program and achieving a return on investment. To be effective, training should reflect the following guidelines:

• It should be tied to the organization's culture and goals. The current mission and goals should guide the development of all training and development activities. Each potential training activity should be reviewed by asking: How will this help achieve the organization's mission or goals?
• It should be perceived as important by trainee. Training should be viewed as important and relevant for achieving personal success and high performance levels.
• It should be relevant to the needs of the trainees. Some form of assessing the needs of the trainees should be completed prior to training to ensure that the program and learning activities are relevant to what the trainees need to learn or do.
• It should be linked to the workplace. Once training is completed, a plan should be completed by all trainees outlining how they will integrate the training results into their job. Some type of action plan—defining what activities will be completed, how they will be done, and when they will be implemented— should be used.
• It should be applied but based on sound learning principles. Current learning and training theories and principles should be used as the foundation for developing and delivering training programs, but the learning activities should stress how these theories and principles can be used in daily job duties.
• It should be supported and reinforced. If training is to be implemented effectively, support should be given by the trainees' supervisor and others who have an impact on the performance of trainees. In addition, policies and performance reward systems should help to support the training efforts and recognize when performance has improved as a result of training.